Nestled in the heart of Transylvania, Alba Iulia holds the title of Romania’s symbolic capital. Steeped in history, the city traces its origins to the Roman Empire and has played a vital role across the centuries, from the Middle Ages to modern times. Its historical pinnacle came on December 1, 1918, when the union of Transylvania with Romania was declared, a landmark moment in shaping national identity. Another milestone followed on December 1, 1922, with the coronation of King Ferdinand and Queen Maria as rulers of Greater Romania. Alba Iulia’s rich heritage is exemplified by its architectural gems, foremost among them the imposing Alba Carolina Citadel, which continues to draw visitors from around the globe.
The First Visit
On August 21, 2011, I had the pleasure of visiting Alba Iulia with Radu, my eldest son. We were returning from an unforgettable expedition in the heart of the Retezat Massif (detailed in the article "Retezat 2011 - Revanşa"), and a stop in this historic city felt like the perfect conclusion to our vacation. Before exploring the Citadel, we chose to tour the city by tourist bus, which allowed us to admire the remarkable architecture and landmarks of Alba Iulia. One highlight was the spectacular artesian fountain, with its futuristic design and captivating elegance—a dynamic feature that left a lasting impression on us.
The Second Visit
Our second visit to Alba Iulia took place on April 27 and 28, 2013, this time as a family: my wife, our two children, Radu and Vlad, and I. Joining us was Cătălin, Radu’s childhood friend, whose presence made the experience all the more special. This visit held a poignant significance for us, as it served as a kind of farewell. In just a few months, we would be leaving Romania to begin a new chapter of our lives in France. Determined to immerse ourselves in the country’s rich history before departing, we made a point to visit some of Romania’s most significant historical landmarks. Alba Iulia, with its profound cultural and symbolic heritage, was at the top of our list. Our timing proved serendipitous, coinciding with a festival of medieval arts and traditions held within the Citadel. The vibrant atmosphere, filled with colourful costumes, spirited dances, and enchanting theatrical performances, captivated us and created memories we will cherish forever.
Simulated Medieval Battles
This visit was a heartfelt celebration of the past as we prepared to step into a new future. Unsurprisingly, the boys were captivated by the workshops showcasing medieval weapons and combat techniques. They examined the intricate details of the swords and protective equipment of the era, even relishing the chance to try them out. Their excitement reached its height during the mock medieval battles performed by passionate history enthusiasts. The spectacle of gleaming armor and expertly choreographed movements transported them to a fantastical world of bravery and adventure.
City History: Apulum/Gyulafehérvár
In antiquity, the Dacian tribes formed the state of Dacia, which included the settlement of Apulon, situated near present-day Alba Iulia. During Emperor Trajan’s reign (98–117 AD), the Roman Empire conquered Dacia, drawn by the region’s abundant gold deposits. On the site of Apulon, the Romans established a fortress known as Apulum, which served as the base for the XIII Gemina Legion. Under Emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD), the fort was reconstructed in stone, transforming it into a formidable stronghold and a key strategic point in the region.
Gyula's White Castle
A flourishing Roman city gradually emerged around the fortress. Although the Romans withdrew from Dacia in 271 AD, the settlement persisted and continued to evolve. Around the year 1000, Alba Iulia became the capital of a state ruled by Gyula, a leader of the Hungarian tribes. This period gave rise to the city’s Hungarian name, Gyulafehérvár, meaning "Gyula’s White Castle." When we visited in 2011, significant reconstruction work was underway on parts of the Roman fort, particularly the entrance gate, showcasing efforts to preserve its historical legacy.
2013: The Show of History Reborn
By the time we returned in 2013, the reconstruction of the Alba Carolina Fortress was nearly complete, restoring the grandeur of this historic landmark. At midday, the Guard of the Citadel made a triumphant entrance through the newly restored gate in a breathtaking display. With resolute strides, soldiers in meticulously crafted period uniforms formed impeccable lines, delivering a ceremony that exuded elegance and reverence for tradition. Following each performance, visitors were invited to interact with the Guard, marvel at the intricate details of their uniforms, and capture moments with these living embodiments of history.
Alba Iulia – Episcopal Residence
From the 11th to the early 16th century, Transylvania functioned as an autonomous principality with its own institutions and laws, although under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its leader, the Voivode of Transylvania, was elected by the Diet—a medieval parliament composed of the region’s noble elite. During this era, Alba Iulia became the episcopal residence of the principality. A grand Roman Catholic cathedral was constructed between the 12th and 13th centuries, with significant expansions in the mid-15th century.
The Sarcophagus of Iancu de Hunedoara
This magnificent cathedral, a testament to Gothic architecture, holds profound historical significance. Among its most notable features is the sarcophagus of Iancu de Hunedoara, a celebrated military leader renowned for his victories against the Ottomans. As Voivode of Transylvania and Regent of Hungary, his legacy is intricately woven into the city’s history. During our second visit to Alba Iulia, we had the privilege of exploring this remarkable cathedral. Its solemn atmosphere and profound historical resonance left an indelible impression on us.
The Capital of the Principality of Transylvania
Following Hungary's defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Principality of Transylvania emerged as an independent state, maintaining its autonomy until 1690. From 1542 onward, Alba Iulia was designated the capital of the principality, serving as its political and administrative center. During this period, Transylvanian princes engaged in numerous conflicts with both the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs. Among the city’s defining historical moments was the brief rule of Michael the Brave as Prince of Transylvania from 1599 to 1600. Michael achieved the first unification of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldova—the three principalities inhabited by Romanians—albeit temporarily. His triumphant entry into Alba Iulia, astride a white horse, became an enduring symbol of courage and unity. Another significant chapter in Alba Iulia’s history was its alliance with the Protestant camp during the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) under the leadership of Prince Gabriel Bethlen. This decision had profound political and religious ramifications for Transylvania, shaping its role in the wider European context.
The Palace of the Princes
The Palace of the Princes, once the official residence of Transylvania's rulers, is a monument of great historical significance. Archaeological findings reveal that its construction materials, including massive stone blocks, were sourced from the Roman fort and the medieval citadel that preceded it. Remnants of this medieval fortification are still visible in Alba Iulia. During our visit, the palace was undergoing renovations, so we were only able to admire its exterior and the striking statue of Michael the Brave on horseback, which stands in front of the building. Today, part of the palace has been restored and houses a museum that, according to online sources, offers an intriguing exploration of Transylvanian history.
Habsburg Reign: Alba Carolina Citadel
The Habsburgs, one of Europe’s most powerful royal dynasties, left a profound mark on the continent’s history through their rule over kingdoms, empires, and principalities. The Austrian branch of the family began governing the Duchy of Austria, later elevated to an Archduchy. Initially under the formal authority of the Holy Roman Empire, it gradually became a more powerful and independent state. This branch expanded its influence, becoming known as the Habsburg Empire or the Austrian Monarchy. Following the Kingdom of Hungary’s defeat at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Habsburgs engaged in a prolonged struggle with the Ottoman Empire for dominance in Central and Eastern Europe. Their victory in the war against the Ottomans (1683–1699) expanded Habsburg influence over Transylvania, which, after the defeat of Francis II Rákóczi (1704–1711), was incorporated into the Habsburg Empire. In 1715, Emperor Charles VI, Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor, ordered the construction of a grand fortress to solidify control over the region. Construction of the Alba Carolina Citadel began that year and was completed in 1738. Built on the site of a former Roman fort and medieval fortification, the Citadel was designed in the distinctive Vauban style, known for its star-shaped bastions.
The White Fortress
A masterpiece of military architecture, the White Fortress features seven bastions and four monumental gates. Its construction, which involved over 20,000 serfs, cost an estimated three million guilders. The name Cetatea Alba Carolina honours Emperor Charles VI and the city’s historical legacy, also known as Gyulafehérvár ("Gyula's White Castle") and Bălgrad/Beograd ("White Citadel" in Old Slavonic). During my visit to Alba Iulia in 2011, the citadel was undergoing extensive restoration. By 2013, the work was completed, and the result was spectacular. The citadel, shining in its full splendour, stands as an unforgettable testament to the historical and architectural grandeur of the Habsburg era.
The Uprising of Horea, Cloșca, and Crișan in 1784
Between 1773 and 1783, Horea, Cloșca, and Crișan made four trips to Vienna to present the grievances of Transylvanian Romanians to Emperor Joseph II. While the emperor was seen as an enlightened ruler, influenced by Enlightenment ideals, he was hesitant to alienate the Hungarian aristocracy and the German bourgeoisie. In an effort to ease tensions among the peasants, Joseph II issued a decree in the summer of 1784 regarding recruitment for the border guard regiments. Recruits were exempted from feudal obligations and, upon completing their military service, were granted ownership of their houses and lands. This measure sparked great enthusiasm among the rural population.
The Revolt Grows
In October 1784, a group of 500-600 peasants from Țara Moților, led by Horea and Crișan, set out for Alba Iulia to enlist. However, they were ambushed by hussars, troops loyal to the Hungarian aristocracy. Thanks to Horea’s military experience and knowledge of the terrain, the peasants successfully repelled the attack and captured the hussars' weapons. During this time, the rebels learned that the governor of Transylvania, Samuel von Brukenthal, had yielded to aristocratic pressure and suspended the imperial decree. By November 4, the revolt had escalated into a large-scale movement. The insurgents grew in number, organized into regiments, and shifted their focus from conscription to a broader fight for freedom from feudal oppression. They seized and burned numerous castles and noble estates across cities and villages, causing widespread panic among the aristocracy.
Capture and Execution of the Leaders
Facing the loss of control in Transylvania, Emperor Joseph II sent the imperial army to suppress the rebellion. On December 7, the rebels were decisively defeated. In response to the defeat, Horea ordered his followers to disperse and prepare for a guerrilla campaign throughout the winter. However, the Hungarian nobility regrouped, recaptured the lost territories, and placed a bounty of 300 thalers on the heads of the uprising's leaders. A few weeks later, Horea, Cloșca, and Crișan were captured and imprisoned in Alba Iulia. Sentenced to death by hanging, Horea and Cloșca were executed on February 28, 1785, on Dealul Furcii, in a brutal display of power. Crișan, however, managed to take his own life in prison, escaping the grim fate of his comrades. Today, visitors can still see the cells where the leaders were held and the site of their execution, preserving the memory of this tragic chapter in Transylvanian history.
The Aftermath of the Revolt of Horea, Cloșca, and Crișan
The 1784 revolt had a lasting impact on imperial policies in Transylvania. Recognizing the deep discontent among the peasantry and the threat of further uprisings, Emperor Joseph II sought to restore social order and solidify Habsburg authority. To this end, he implemented a series of reforms, including decrees that reintroduced essential freedoms for rural life, such as the right to graze, travel, and transport goods on provincial roads. These reforms were intended to address some of the grievances that had fueled the uprising and to prevent future unrest.
Abolition of Serfdom
The most significant reform implemented by Emperor Joseph II was the abolition of serfdom. This measure freed the peasants from the feudal obligations imposed by their lords, granting them greater independence and the ability to secure a more dignified livelihood. Additionally, the newly freed peasants gained access to imperial schools, which played a key role in raising educational standards and fostering the development of a Romanian elite capable of advocating for their rights and national identity. These reforms served as a crucial catalyst for the Romanian cultural renaissance in Transylvania and contributed to the growth of national consciousness. To honour the sacrifices of the three leaders of the revolt, a 20-meter Art Deco-style obelisk, the "Memorial of the Revolt of 1784," was erected in 1937. The monument symbolizes the fight for justice and freedom, remaining a significant symbol in the collective memory of Romanians. It continues to attract visitors and inspire respect for the courage and determination of those who resisted oppression.
Alba Iulia and the Revolution of 1848
The year 1848 was marked by a wave of revolutionary movements across Europe, many of which sought political and social change. While most of these uprisings were suppressed by the ruling powers, France stood out as a notable exception, where King Louis-Philippe was forced to abdicate, leading to the establishment of a republic. In Hungary, part of the Habsburg Empire, a revolution broke out with initial success. However, the Hungarian revolutionaries sought an independent and unified Hungary, which would require the abolition of the political and linguistic autonomy enjoyed by Romanians in Transylvania. This led to conflict between the two groups. The Transylvanian Romanians, led by Avram Iancu, rose against the Hungarian revolution, organizing and fighting fiercely between the fall of 1848 and the summer of 1849, when the Hungarian revolt was ultimately defeated. Initially, the Romanians fought alongside Austrian forces in Transylvania. However, between November 1848 and June 1849, the Austrian forces withdrew, leaving the Romanians to continue the struggle alone. Despite this, the Austrian garrison at Alba Iulia remained in the city, successfully holding control even in the face of a Hungarian siege.
Repulse of Hungarian Attacks
The successful defense of Alba Iulia against Hungarian besiegers was primarily due to the strength of the Alba Carolina Citadel's fortifications, which withstood repeated assaults. In addition, the Romanian forces played a crucial role in breaking through the enemy lines multiple times, delivering vital supplies, ammunition, and reinforcements to the Austrian garrison. This support ensured the continued defense of the city. The arrival of fresh ammunition was particularly critical, as it enabled the artillery to maintain its effectiveness, playing a decisive role in repelling the Hungarian attacks.
Gemini Aurarian Legion
Some of the cannons used during the 1848-1849 conflict can still be viewed in the Alba Carolina Citadel today. Every weekend at noon, the Citadel Guard performs demonstration firings with these historic cannons, offering an impressive spectacle for visitors. A notable detail is that the name "Legiunea Auraria Gemina" (Gemini Aurarian Legion) was adopted by the primary Romanian military force in Transylvania at the time. Avram Iancu chose this name to highlight the Romanian heritage of the region, emphasizing the strong connection with its ancient past. Ultimately, the Hungarian Revolution was suppressed with decisive military support from the Russian Empire.
The Custozza Monument
Between 1859 and 1866, a series of military conflicts unfolded between the Italians and Austrians. The Battle of Custozza in 1866 was one of the few Austrian victories, where the 50th Alba Iulia Regiment, primarily composed of Romanians, earned recognition for its bravery and effectiveness. To honor those who fell in this battle, an obelisk-shaped monument was erected in Alba Iulia in 1906.
The Triple Entente
Following the wars between 1859 and 1866, in which the Austrian Empire lost its Italian territories to France and Prussia, the Empire was forced to restructure, becoming the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Hungarian nobility’s support became crucial for maintaining power, and this reorganization favoured the Hungarians while disadvantaging the majority Romanian population of Transylvania, who lost many of their hard-won privileges. Consequently, during the First World War, Romania aligned with the Triple Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia), despite having a king from the German Hohenzollern dynasty.
The First Union with Romania
On January 24, 1859, the two Romanian Principalities, Wallachia and Moldova, were effectively united under Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza. This union was quickly recognized by France, led by Napoleon III, who pressured Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire to accept it, though with reservations. Cuza implemented sweeping reforms, including the adoption of the Napoleonic Civil Code, which modernized the country. Despite these crucial advancements, Cuza's increasing unpopularity led to his deposition in 1866. On Napoleon III’s advice, Karl von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a Prussian officer and relative of the Emperor of Prussia (later Germany), was chosen as his successor. To honour Romania’s Francophone ties, Karl became King Carol I on March 26, 1881.
December 1, 1918
After the death of King Charles I during the war, his nephew Ferdinand ascended to the throne. Romania initially remained neutral for the first two years of World War I, but in 1916, it joined the Triple Entente in exchange for a promise: upon victory, Transylvania would unite with Romania. Following the defeat of the Central Powers and the triumph of the Triple Entente, the long-awaited union was realized on December 1, 1918, in Alba Iulia. For a deeper understanding of this pivotal moment, we recommend visiting the National Museum of the Union, which offers a comprehensive exploration of the history and life of Romanians in Transylvania, from its early days through the 20th century.
The Great Union
In the autumn of 1918, Romanian forces, supported by French troops, launched a decisive offensive, successfully driving German and Austro-Hungarian forces from Romania. Following this victory, Romanian-French troops crossed the Carpathian Mountains into Transylvania, where Romanians had already begun organizing and fighting their enemies. Meanwhile, preparations for a monumental demonstration reached their peak in November 1918. On December 1, in the Union Hall of the Alba Iulia Citadel, 1,228 delegates representing all regions, social classes, professions, religions, and political affiliations of Transylvania unanimously adopted the "Resolution of the Union." This resolution was then presented to the 100,000-strong crowd gathered from all over Transylvania to witness this historic event. The announcement was met with thunderous cheers that seemed to reverberate through the ground. I spent considerable time admiring the Union Hall, the "Resolution" displayed on the wall, and the many exhibits that commemorate the pivotal moments of this history.
The Coronation
In 1918, Romania's territory expanded significantly through the Union with other regions inhabited by Romanians: Bessarabia, which had been forcibly occupied by the Russian Empire since 1812 (a detailed article on this topic will be published in January 2025), and Bucovina, annexed by the Austrian Empire in 1775. Transylvania was the last to declare its union with the mother country on December 1, 1918. To celebrate these historic unions, the Reunification Cathedral was constructed inside the Alba Iulia Citadel in 1921, designed in Byzantine style. The cathedral follows a Greek cross plan and is accessed through a portico with five arches. Its interior is adorned with impressive murals. The cathedral is also known as the "Coronation Cathedral." On December 1, 1922, King Ferdinand I was crowned here as King of Greater Romania, taking the title "Ferdinand I the Complete."
The Citadel Guard
The Citadel Guard, established to highlight the authentic character of the Alba Carolina Citadel, offers a captivating spectacle that immerses visitors in the atmosphere of the 18th century. Parades are held at 12:00 every Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, drawing the attention of tourists with their precision and grandeur. Each parade is accompanied by engaging ceremonies, including the presentation of flags and cannon volleys that echo through the citadel’s historic air. Guard posts are stationed at the entrance gates, faithfully recreating the military atmosphere of the era. The guards wear elegant Austrian uniforms, representative of various 18th-century army corps, adding an extra layer of authenticity and historical charm. The Citadel Guard's presence and parades make the Alba Carolina Citadel a unique European destination for history enthusiasts and lovers of cultural displays.
The Wooden Church
Nestled within the Citadel, the small wooden church is a true architectural gem, characteristic of Maramureș—a region deeply rooted in Romanian traditions and spirit. This charming church enhances the Citadel's allure, serving as a remarkable example of Romania's wooden architecture.
Our Recommendation
While Romania boasts many renowned destinations, Alba Iulia stands as a must-visit for those seeking to uncover the true essence of the country. A visit to this city and its Citadel offers a unique opportunity to immerse yourself in Romania’s rich history, traditions, and authentic beauty.
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